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Absentee Landowners
Occasionally, donations may be made because of concern for liability, particularly if the property contains a lake or some other feature which may be considered a nuisance. The absentee landowner is especially vulnerable in this respect, for if fences or signs are torn down and not immediately replaced, the landowner may be subject to a liability suit for any injuries which subsequently occur. 9
Access and Linkages
Access and Linkages (into a public space) must be readily visible, easily accessible, convenient, connect related spaces and allow a variety of transportation options. 12
Access rights
Right of way easements – one of the most commonly less-than-fee interests. 7
Acculturation
Acculturation is the process of borrowing between cultures. It is the continuous transmission of elements and traits between different peoples generally resulting in a symbiosis of blended cultures. It often leads to modification of host cultures in developing countries through direct and prolonged contact with tourists and tourism from advanced capitalist society. 22
Active Living
Integrating physical activity into daily life. 3
Advisory Board
A committee of citizens that counsel a park and recreation board on the needs of the community or the activities that are already going on in a park or recreation facility. 25
Aeration (For turf)
The purpose of aeration is to provide air to the roots of the grass. In normal turf, a reason should be performed once a year (in the spring), when the soil is soft, but not muddy. Where compaction is a problem, aeration should be performed more frequently. The aerifier should remove a soil core to a depth of six to ten inches. These soil cores should be broken up and spread over the surface. This can be accomplished by dragging the area with a flexible steel mat. Aeration should be done before fertilizing and liming. 16
Assimilation
Assimilation is the process of a minority group adapting to the customs and norms of the prevailing culture. 22
BANANA
Build Absolutely Nothing Anywhere Near Anything
Behavior Mapping
Behavior mapping, also known as activity mapping, is the study of people’s activities in a specific area for a predetermined amount of time. Stationary activities such as sunbathing, sitting, leaning, talking, and reading can be documented, as can activities involving motion: walking, jogging, biking, etc. These activities are mapped to discover in what types of places these activities most commonly occur. 12
Benchmarking
Benchmarking is a management technique that can be helpful in assessing maintenance performance. In the area of facility management, the process of benchmarking seeks and describes the best examples of performance in order to establish a standard of quality. 16
Benefits
The services and programs that recreation and park agencies develop provide participants with benefits. The programs are simply a means to an end. 9
Benefits Based Management
Benefits based management directs that designing a service should start by focusing on outcomes. Real repositioning occurs by structuring services in a way that will deliver those outcomes, and psychological repositioning repositioning occurs through communicating in outcome terms instead of in terms of the types and numbers of park and recreation services and opportunities provided per se. Together these strategies constitute the essence of benefits based management. 21
Benefits-Based Approach
An approach to evaluating the delivery of park and recreation resources, facilities and services which focuses on identifying the economic, environmental, and social benefits specially and directly attributable to the cost of providing the opportunities from which the benefits are derived. 23
Biofiltration
The filtration of storm water runoff through biodegradable materials which are themselves returned to the ecosystem in an environmentally safe manner. 23
Boards and Commissions
Critical components of the organizational environment of public and private leisure service agencies are boards and commissions. These bodies may assume an integral, and in many cases, preeminent role in the formulation of a recreation and park organization’s goals and policies. 9
Bonds
Bonds are defined formally as promise by the borrower (the agency bond issuer) to pay back the lender (the financial institution bond holder) a specified amount of money with interest within a specified period of time. Bonds are one of the most common long-term debt instruments used to fund the development and expansion of park and recreation systems through the acquisition of park land and new facility construction at both state and local levels. 7
Boundaries
A boundary is a dividing line between areas which can be real (a partition i.e. fence, hedge, row of trees, or other form that divides an area) or imagined (people assume a sense of ownership of a place that, strictly speaking, does not belong to them). 28
Boundary
The edge of an ecosystem that creates a transition zone with another ecosystem. 3
Bridges
A bridge is a structure that spans an obstacle (water, road) and provides access from one area to another. They can help people stay oriented along trails, and allow observation of nature. 28
Brochures
A brochure is an informative pamphlet. In preparing a brochure, it is best to incorporate the readers’ existing knowledge and concerns, to tell a story, and to not include too much information. 28
Brownfield
An abandoned industrial or commercial property that is environmentally contaminated and is available for redevelopment. 3
Budget
A budget is a financial policy and political plan that forecasts an agency’s estimated revenues and expenditures for a given time. It should allocate resources to programs and activities in a manner that reflects the community’s desires. Because it involves choices and trade-offs, compiling a budget is often difficult and controversial. Almost all budgets are incremental; that is, the previous year’s budget level is the starting point for developing the current budget, and most effort is concentrated on the increment of increase or decrease requested compared with the previous budget. See also Capital Budget and Operating Budget. 7
Built Environment
A term referring to the physical form and character of communities. In the model presented in this book, the built environment consists of three elements-transportation systems, land use patterns, and urban design characteristics. 11
Capital Budget
The financing of long-lived physical improvements, or one-time expenditures on major purchases that generally have a life expectancy of at least 10 years. 7
Capital Gains Tax
A tax imposed on property that has increased in value since it was originally purchased 9
Carrying Capacity
Related to the field of protected area management, recreation management, and tourism planning that links the quantity of visitation an area receives to the amount of impact on biophysical and social conditions that results. 10
Center City
The central business district or downtown as well as adjacent neighborhoods of a city. In the U.S. Census, the core city or cities in a metropolitan area are called the central city or cities. 3
Certificate of Obligation
A type of full faith and credit obligation, a certificate of obligation does not require approval of the voters at referendum, but is backed by the full faith and credit of a jurisdiction’s tax base. It must be used for real property acquisition or improvements. 7
Certificate of Participation
A lending institution providing funds to an intermediary for major equipment, development, or open space acquisition. The intermediary serves as a trustee and holds title to the leased asset for the benefit of the investors who are the certificate holders. The financial institution is reimbursed over time from the lease fees that the government pays the intermediary. When the debt is paid, the facility becomes the agency’s property. 7
Checklist
Also, check list. a list of items, as names or tasks, for comparison, verification, or other checking purposes. 19
CIP – Capital Improvement Program
The CIP is each capital project proposed for development over the planning period (usually 5 to 6 years) by listing the year it is to be started, the cost to be incurred by year, and the proposed method of financing. Based on these details about each project, annual cost schedules for capital expenditures, as well as summaries of financial requirements and resources (i.e. current revenues, general obligation bonds, intergovernmental assistance), are developed. 7
Cognitive Map
An abstractionary map created in the mind, which acts as a collection of representations and associations which define certain environments within the mind. 14
Coherence
A coherent setting is orderly; it is organized into clear areas. Readily discernible, has repeating themes and unifying textures. 28
Collective Bargaining
Collective bargaining is a negotiation between employers and unions aimed to regulate working conditions. For a park and recreation agency, because is is usually the only supplier of the services that it produces, collective bargaining may drive employee compensation above the market rate because there is no competition for labor rates and because above-market costs are passed on to taxpayers. 7
Color – use of
Color (as a design tool) can be used to enhance the distinctiveness of different levels of paths, helping visitors become familiar with the basic structure of an area. Color can also aid in the facilitation of quiet fascination in an area. 28
Commercial Recreation
A recreation services provided to a community for the profit of that provider. 25
Commercial Sector
The commercial sector is any agency that provides a service for profit. Assets of the commercial sector that can contribute to a partnership with a park and recreation agency are the ability to raise capital, specialized management expertise, reduced labor costs, adaptability to scale of service, and reduced liability risks. 7
Community
A geographical planning jurisdiction, whether a it is a city, county, township, or town, and the people, businesses, and institutions that are a part of it and make it a center of human activity. 28
Community Benefits
Expanding from the foundation of user benefits to a broader focus on community-wide benefits. 2
Community Education
Community education is an effort by some school districts to expand their customary role of providing for Kindergarten through 12th grade, by offering a wide variety of educational and recreational classes in the evenings and during school vacations. 9
Community-Based Process
The process whereby community representatives from both public and private sectors meet to identify the range of issues that various groups face regarding a particular place. They also formulate hypotheses about issues that merit further data collection and develop a work plan. 12
Compost
A mixture of various decaying organic substances, as dead leaves or manure, used for fertilizing soil. 19
Connectivity
A term describing how directly a person can travel from one destination to another via existing transportation networks. 11
Contract
An agreement between two or more parties for the doing or not doing of something specified. 19
Contracted Services
Contracted services are services or programs that are provided by another agency. There is an official document involved, which spells out the role the contracted agency will play in the delivery of the service. Contracting out services is considered beneficial to park and recreation agencies when the process saves time, labor, or money. 7
Coproduction
A process in which an individual or community group participates jointly with a public agency in the production of parks and recreation services of which they or their families are the primary beneficiaries. 7
Cost Recovery
Cost recovery is the proportion of costs associated with a service which the price of that service should recover. Options include no cost recovery, variable cost recovery, partial overhead cost recovery, full cost recovery, and marginal cost recovery. 21
Counting
Counting is a systematic method of gathering numerical data about people, vehicles or anything else in a specific location or passing a particular point. 12
County Parks
A larger park meant for the enjoyment of an entire county. 15
Courtyards
A courtyard is an open green space without a roof, usually enclosed by four sides. It is a good way to incorporate nature into an urban setting, and can focus views to nearby nature. 28
Customary Pricing
Customary pricing is the traditional pricing that people historically expect from certain services. 21
Customer
The user, consumer, patron, guest, stakeholder or visitor who consumes a product, resource or service provided “free” at some level of fee or user charge below the true cost, or at full cost from a park and recreation agency or private concessionaire operating under the control of the park and recreation agency. 23
Defensible Space
Defensible space is the idea that inhabitants of an area can use the public spaces beyond their personal residences in order to maintain their own security. The four design implications of creating a secure environment are territoriality, natural surveillance, the building being designed to create a sense of security, and enhancing safety by locating residences immediately adjacent to activities that do not provide continued threat (e.g. police station or busy commercial area). 14
Demand
The use made of recreation opportunities (facilities, resources, programs) or the desire to use recreation opportunities now or in the future. 10
Demand Level Pricing
Pricing a service based on the demand for that service. 21
Demographic Trends
The changing characteristics of a population over time. 21
Density
(a) Term referring to the concentration of people or objects within the built environment. (b) Density refers to the number of recreation users per unit area at one time, and it is commonly used to represent use levels in discussions of crowding and carrying capacity in recreation settings. 0
Design
Design is the process by which spaces come into being. It is the planning and preparing that goes into the layout of a space. It can also refer to the final layout of a space. 28
Design Process
A systematic approach to site design which includes three phases. The first is a “survey” or an assembling of facts and data which might have consequences for the design’s outcome. The second is “analysis” or the making of value judgments about the effects of one fact upon another. The third step may be called “synthesis” or the weaving of the results of analysis into a comprehensive for and organization solution to the problem. 1
Development Rights
Conservation or scenic easements – one of the most commonly acquired less-than-fee interests. 7
Distraction – Separation From
Enclosures (using distinct textures underfoot and vertical features to mark separation) are useful in removing distractions outdoors. Canopy trees can be used in urban settings to create separation between green spaces and the surrounding streets. 28
Earmark Funds
Statutory restrictions on how the proceeds from specified taxes and revenue sources may be spent. Earmark funds go directly into a designated account from which expenditures are tied to a specified program 7
Easements
An easement enables a landowner to exercise her or his right to sell or bequeath the land, to keep others off of it, to use it for farming, ranching, recreation, timber production, to extract minerals from it, and to build structures on it. An affirmative easement authorizes something to be done on a landowner’s property. A negative easement restricts or limits the number or types of changes that can be done to a property. 7
Ecological Restoration
Ecological restoration is the idea that natural environments (parks, trails, lakes) have stress-reducing effects on people and can create a sense of restoration. 28
Economic Impact
A measurement of the fiscal effect a visitor or a business has on a place 7
Eco-recreation
Outdoor recreation opportunities dependent upon a diverse and undisturbed landscape setting. Eco-recreation is sometimes referred to as eco-tourism. 23
Ecosystem
A relatively homogeneous environment, including biotic (living) and abiotic (nonliving) components, where organisms interact. 3
Edge
The area at or near the boundary of an ecosystem that differs in environmental conditions from the interior core (core habitat) of an ecosystem. 3
Education of the Public
Education of the public involves sharing information in a way that people will use it. Too much information or too technical of information will fall on deaf ears. The information must be useful, coherent, and succinct. Education of the public is important to park and recreation agencies to avoid conflicts and provide the public with services that will be useful to them. 28
Endowment
The terms “foundation” and “trust” are used to describe organizations that have broadly defined charitable purposes, substantial capital assets and income which comes from gifts, bequests, and capital investments. Established foundations have been given a wide variety of names which are used synonymously, including; foundations, trust, endowment, corporation, and society. 9
Enterprise funds
A governmental accounting tool developed for recording transactions in much the same way as a private enterprise does. It permits the tracking of certain activities – usually self supporting – through a separate fund that records all transactions. 9
Environmental Education
Environmental education is teaching people about the natural environment, how ecosystems work, and how people fit into them. 14
Environmental Hazard
An “environmental hazard” is anything outside the individual that can cause adverse health effects or damage the environment. In other words, hazards are threats to people and what they value. 4
Environmental Justice
Equitable spatial distribution of burdens and benefits to groups such as racial minorities, residents of economically disadvantaged areas, or residents of developing nations. 4
Environmental Preference
Environmental preferences are elements of an environment that people find comforting, enjoyable, or desirable. Landscapes can be designed to increase environmental preference by adding elements that promote feelings of security and mystery and by considering citizen perceptions and input into the design and upkeep processes. 14
Environmental Scan
A situational analysis involving identification of agency strengths and weaknesses, and external opportunities and threats, for the purpose of developing a strategic approach to planning. 23
Equity
Equity is fairness, justice, or the equal distribution of something. 21
Erosion
The act or state of eroding; state of being eroded. The process by which the surface of the earth is worn away by the action of water, glaciers, winds, waves, etc.19
Estate Taxes
Estate taxes are those taxes that are levied after the death of an individual on the person who inherits their property. 9
Exaction
An exaction is a mandated partnership between a park and recreation agency and a developer, requiring that the developer dedicate park land or pay a fee to be used by the government entity to acquire and develop park and recreation facilities. Exactions are a means of providing park and recreational facilities in newly developed areas of a jurisdiction without burdening existing city or county residents. 7
Exurban Development
The development that occurs beyond the suburbs at the fringe of metropolitan regions. 3
Facade
The design features of the front of a building-its architectural style, door and window treatments, portico, stoop, texture, and so on. 11
Facility Planning
Mapping out how a facility will look, the purposes it will serve, and it’s general physical layout. 25
Family Life Cycle
The important stages in the life of an ordinary family, or the combination of an individual’s age and the age of his or her children. The six stages include: Bachelor or Single stage, Preparental stage, Early Parental stage, Late Parental or Launching stage, Post Parental or Empty Nest stage, Older Single People stage. 9
Family Structure
Family structure is the changing patterns of the family life cycle and make-up of a family. 21
Feasibility Study
An objective view of the costs and benefits associated with a new program idea. Establishing what constitutes feasibility, assessment of the probable demand for a program, the need for new capital investment, estimated operational costs, projecting the income likely to accrue from users, and establishing a timetable for testing and implementation, and assigning operating responsibility are the steps in a feasibility study. 9
Fee Simple
When a landowner purchases land in fee simple, he or she assumes the full fee responsibility of maintaining that land. 7
Feedback
Feedback is the process of receiving information on the feelings, experiences, thoughts, or complaints of users of a service. Feedback is essential in the delivery of any service because it makes practitioners aware of users’ feelings. A service cannot be successful if the feedback from users is not acknowledged. 28
Fee-in-lieu
Fees-in-lieu give the city the option of declining a dedication of land and instead require the developer to pay a sum based on the fair market value for the land that otherwise would have been dedicated. Fees-in-lieu can alleviate weaknesses sometimes associated with parkland dedication ordinances. 29
First-person Interpretation
An interpretive program, dramatic performance or informal interaction in which an interpreter portrays a real or hypothetical person from the past. 29
Flood Plains
Flood plains are the flat area of land near a stream or river that floods when an excess of water flows from upstream. 9
FLSA
The Fair Labor Standards Act requires employers to pay employees a minimum wage rate per hour and to pay 1 1/2 times the employee’s regular rate for each hour over 40 worked during any work week; it also imposes restrictions on the employment of young people under the age of 18. 16
Footloose Industries
Many industries maybe characterized as Footloose because they are perceived to be less constrained and more flexible under choice of location than traditional manufacturing companies are. The principle resource of Footloose companies is their employees. The financial performance of these companies is relatively independent of location decision. They are not tied to raw materials, natural resources, or energy supplies. The absence of the resource constraints means that these companies are perceived to be excellent prospects for relocation by cities seeking to expand their tax base. A large number of communities and states attempt to attract Footloose companies by creating a highly competitive environment. The importance of quality of life, business location decisions, has been repeatedly documented, not matter how quality of life is defined, park and recreation amenities are likely to be a major component of it. 7
Foundations
A foundation is an institution financed by a donation or legacy that is established to aid some place or some people. 19
Fragmentation
The spatial process of subdividing land, habitat, or ecosystems into smaller, unconnected parcels. 3
Fringe Participants
Participants who are not fully committed to supporting a program and may take advantage of an alternative or substitute opportunity if one emerges. 21
Full Cost Recovery Pricing
A method of pricing that is intended to produce sufficient revenue to cover all the fixed and variable costs associated with the service. Sometimes also called the “fair price” because the total costs of a service are divided among those who receive it, and no one has been taken advantage of. 21
Funding Mechanisms
Funding mechanisms are ways of borrowing money to finance the acquisition of park land and new facility construction. Many of these mechanisms are long-term debt instruments, and most commonly are bonds. 7
Game Size Areas
See Game Size Areas1
Gardens
A garden is a plot of ground cultivated with trees, shrubs, flowers and other plants. They can come in a variety of sizes and shapes, from very large to very small. 28
Gateways
Gateways, as a design concept, are choice points; they signal a transition from one place to another. They provide information from one place to another. 28
General Fund
Funded by sales taxes, the general fund is the money that is used to fund a city’s general services such as police, fire, parks and recreation departments, community services, streets, planning, social services, and emergency services. 9
General Purpose Foundations
Foundations that support specific program areas that support a broader mission. 7
Grassroots Efforts
Efforts on the part of local citizens to increase community participation in management of local parks. 28
Greenline Parks
Greenline Parks are areas containing a mix of public and private land that comprehensively is planned, regulated, and managed by an authority set up specifically to preserve recreational, aesthetic, ecological, historic, and cultural values. 7
Greenway
(a) Greenways are corridors of protected open space managed for conservation and recreational purposes. Major types include urban riverside greenways, recreational greenways, ecologically significant natural corridors, scenic and historic routes, and comprehensive greenway systems or networks based on natural landforms. (b) A vegetation corridor used for recreation and environmental conservation that is typically located along a river or abandoned railroad corridor and connects two different neighborhoods or communities (c) A linear open space landscaped for pedestrian or bicycle passage linking parks, nature reserves, cultural features, or historic sites with each other or with populated areas. 0
Impact Fee
Also known as capital recovery or development fees, impact fees are fees paid by a builder per unit of housing built to the city or county for the purpose of acquiring and developing new park land. The building of new units of housing requires more parks for the people who will move into those residents Impact fees are calculated by multiplying the average park land value by the acres per person service level by the number of units by the average persons per unit. 7
Inclusion
A process that enables an individual to be part of his or her physical and social environment by making choices, being supported in his or her endeavors, having friends, and being valued. The key tenant of inclusion is that it seeks to assure everyone, regardless of their level of ability or disability, the right to experience an enjoyable and satisfying life. Inclusion addresses the social as well as physical aspects of an individual’s involvement. 22
Inequity
Unfair or unjust 7
Infrastructure
The public and private utilities and services provided to developable property. Items of infrastructure include streets, water, sewer, storm drainage, electricity, telephone, cable, natural gas, solid waste collection, schools, parks and recreation, and public libraries. 23
In-Kind Donations
In-kind donations are donations that take the form of goods and services, rather than cash. 7
Interlocking
The use of corridors of land and/or water which connect larger parcels, providing an interconnected system within a community or region. 23
Interpersonal Constraints
Barriers that arise out of social interaction with friends, family, and others. Interpersonal constraints are believed to be relatively unimportant in limiting people’s involvement in solitary activities. In group activities, they appear to be highly important and may take the form of gate-keeping mechanisms, scheduling problems, and group disbandment. 22
Interpretation
A mission-based communication process that forges emotional and intellectual connections between the interests of the audience and the meanings inherent in the resource. 5
Interpreter (Environmental)
Those involved in the interpretation of natural and cultural heritage resources in settings such as parks, zoos, museums, nature centers, aquariums, botanical gardens, and historical sites. 5
Interpretive Theme
The central message about a topic of interest that a communicator wants to get across to an audience. It’s the answer to the question, “so what?” 6
Intrapersonal Constraints
A physiological state that inhibits the acquisition of leisure preferences. Intrapersonal constraints exist when individuals, as a result of personality needs, religiosity, reference group attitudes, prior socialization, and perceived skills and abilities, fail to develop leisure preferences. 22
Land Acquisition
The process by which land is acquired. 9
Land Fill
A low area of land that is built up from deposits of solid refuse in layers covered by soil. 4
Land Trust Alliance
Formed in 1982, the Land Trust Alliance is the national coordinating organization that facilitates the sharing of expertise among the many land trusts that exist. Its mission is to provide provide information, training, policy advocacy, and networking in order to reduce any sense of isolation and to build the efforts of individual land trusts into a strong, effective national movement for volunteer land conservation. 7
Land Use
Land use is the utilization of an area of land for human use. 4
Land Use Patterns
Consist of the spatial arrangement of structures and other physical elements within the built environment. Determine how close destinations are to one another (proximity). 11
Landmarks
Landmarks are distinct features of an area that aid in way finding and legibility. A landmark can be a sign, a distinct-looking tree, or stream crossing. Landmarks must be distinct enough to not be confused with another similar looking feature. 28
Landscape Ecology
The scientific study of the interactions between land use, land cover, and ecological process that causes a range of environmental conditions and variations (spatial heterogeneity) to occur across many scales, such as landscapes, region, or watershed and the application of the science of landscapes ecology to landscape conservation and sustainability. 3
Latent Demand
That demand for goods or services which cannot be met because of a lack of calculation, latent demand is the demand for recreation facilities and activities which cannot be satisfied with the existing facility capacity. 23
Leadership Plan
An element of the comprehensive park, recreation and open space plan which sets forth the mission, management philosophy, and values of the organization, including the organizational structure and leadership positions needed to implement each action item of the plan. 23
Lease-Back
A lease-back may occur when an agency approaches a landowner and offers to purchase the land at below market value, but to lease it back to them after purchase at a nominal rate of $1 per year. Upon their death (or upon the death of their children), the lease expires and use of the property passes to the public agency, thus enabling the the landowners to use the property as before, without the problems and costs of ownership. 9
Legibility
(a) Legibility refers to the ability of one to find their way through the environment, and back again. Landmarks help with the legibility of a space because they provide for distinctiveness. (b) In the natural environment, legibility is enhanced by a sense of depth and by the smoothness of the texture, both of which facilitate seeing where one is headed. 0
Leisure Constraints
Leisure constraints are those factors that limit people’s participation in leisure activities, use of leisure services (e.g. parks and programs), and satisfaction or enjoyment of current activities. 22
Less-than-fee interest
A less-than-fee interest consists of one or more rights or of specifically defined parts of rights. The most commonly acquired less-than-fee interest include access rights, development rights, and mineral rights. In the past, park and recreation agencies almost exclusively acquired full fee-simple ownership of the lands that they administered. However, in recent years, less-than-fee, simple mechanisms have gained in popularity. 7
Less-than-fee-simple methods
When the full fee ownership of land is not desirable or possible, a less than fee simple method may be adopted. This is a way for land to become public, but for the park and recreation agency to not commit the land to public ownership. 9
Level of Service (LOS)
An expression of the minimum recreation and park infrastructure capacity required to satisfy the park and recreation needs of residents of a community. The National Recreation and Park Association recognizes the importance of level of service as: an expression of minimum acceptable facilities for citizens within the community; a guideline to determine land requirements for various kinds of park and recreation areas and facilities; a basis for relating recreational needs to spatial analysis within a community-wide system of parks, recreation areas, and open spaces. 23
Lila Wallace-Reader’s Digest Fund
A special-purpose foundation that’s mission is to invest in programs that enhance the cultural life of communities and encourage people to make the arts and culture an active part of their everyday lives. They are focused on three different areas: arts and culture, adult literacy, and urban parks. 7
LULU
Locally Undesirable Land Use 4
Mandatory Dedication
An ordinance which requires a developer to dedicate park land (and/or cash in lieu of land) as a prerequisite for plat approval. 23
Marginal Cost Pricing
Marginal cost is the addition to total cost resulting from the last unit of output. If the price is intended to recover marginal costs, then a service is provided at a price equal to the cost of providing an additional unit of service, or the cost of serving the incremental user. 21
Market Segmentation
The process of dividing a total clientele into groups consisting of people who have relatively similar service needs, for the purpose of designing a marketing mix (or mixes) that precisely matches the needs of individuals in a selected segment (or segments). 21
Marketing Evaluation
The marketing evaluation is an assessment of the results of a marketing plan. It is done through the marketing audit (an attempt to describe the current marketing situation, to speculate about the relevant future, and to analyze the organization’s marketing performance and potential) and the program evaluation. 21
Marketing Mix
Product (bundle of want-satisfying attributes), distribution (how services get to client groups where and when they want them), price (what a user must give up in order to obtain the services offered), and promotion (personal selling, publicity, advertising, and incentives). 21
Mission Statement
Long-term vision of what the agency is or is striving to become, establishing the boundaries within which objectives, strategies, and actions must be developed. 21
Mode Share
The share, by percentage, of trips by each type of mode (e.g., automobile, transit, walking, bicycling). 11
Multiplier Effect
When a visitor spends money in a community on gas, food, lodging, entertainment, etc, that money is then paid in the form of salaries back to employees who then spend that money in the community on other goods and services. The effect of the dollar spent by the visitor is then multiplied in the community by that dollar being spent by the employee. 9
Municipal Bonds
A municipal bond is a tax-exempt bond that is purchased by a public agency. 7
Mystery
As far as natural settings are concerned, the most striking quality that enhances preference is called “mystery”. A suggested path that becomes obscure as it joins the woods, a stream that meanders out of sight, a scene that is hard to make out behind some foliage – these all have a quality of enticing one to want to know more; they compel one to change one’s vantage point and enter “deeper” into the scene. 14
National Trails System
The network of scenic, historic, and recreation trails created by the National Trails System Act of 1968. These trails provide for outdoor recreation needs, promote the enjoyment, appreciation, and preservation of open-air, outdoor areas and historic resources, and encourage public access and citizen involvement. 15
Nature Centers
Nature centers are places for learning about and observing plants and animals. Most nature centers also take wild animals that cannot live in on their own. They are usually in urban settings. 28
Needs Assessment
A citizen input process conducted before services and infrastructure are introduced or modified to identify and analyze current use, intended use, and preferences. 21
Neo-Traditional Design
A term referring to urban design theories and techniques that emphasize the virtues of older neighborhoods: a fine neighborhood grain, grid street patterns, human-scaled architecture, a mixture of uses. 11
New Urbanism
A term describing an architect-let movement based on neo-traditional design principles. 11
Nexus Rule
The nexus rule requires that the dedicated resources be used to provide facilities that benefit those who will live in a proximate area.
NIMBY
Not In My Backyard. 4
Non-Profit Organization
Private organizations that are prevented by their legal status from distributing to their members any surplus income (or profit) or any surplus assets that might exist upon the winding down of the organization.
NOTE
Not Over There Either
NPS
National Park Service – The preservation of land areas as a park or wilderness areas meant to be permanent reserves of land for U.S. citizens. The Antiquities Act of 1906 provided presidential power to claim and thus protect areas of scenic wonder and natural beauty in the United States. 15
NRPA
National Recreation and Park Association – NRPA is an advocacy organization dedicated to the advancement of public parks and recreation opportunities.It was founded in 1965. 15
Objectives
Objectives are measurable and specific outcomes that collectively satisfy a specific goal. Objectives play an important role in the strategic planning of recreational events, programs, and services. Clearly identified objectives inform the development and assignment of relevant financial, human, and physical resources for achieving identified outcomes. Recreational objectives can be divided into three main types: organizational, program, and performance objectives. 10
Objectives of Pricing
Objectives of Pricing should be adjusted for the client group for which the program is intended (public, private, or merit), provide for the efficient use of all financial resources, be fair, maximize opportunity for participation, rationing participation, promote positive user attitudes, and encourage the commercial sector. 9
Olmsted, Frederick Law
American landscape architect, responsible for building Central Park and Prospect Park in New York City. 7
Operating Budget
A financial plan that provides a detailed statement of all the expenditures (e.g. personnel, supplies, etc.) necessary for the day-to-day operation of an agency for a one-year period. 7
Operating Foundations
Foundations that spend all of their income directly actively conducting the service for which they were organized 7
Organizational Structure
Organizational structure is the form of coordination and organization of individuals an agency uses to achieve a common aim. Most agencies use a from of hierarchical structure, with the chief administrator at the top and descending levels of authority beneath. 9
Organizational Support
Organizational support is the support a new program from elected officials and the agency head. 21
Painted Places
Painted Places are bright games or artwork painted on cement or asphalt surfaces.33
Park System
This collection of sites to serve the collective need is the “park system”. In any geographical area, it is unlikely that all the people’s recreation needs can be met on one site in one park. It is more usual that a number of parks are required. 1
Park Trail
A trail designated for activities within a park, recreation, open space area or greenway. 23
Parking Lane
A lane on the street that consists of parked cars. Located in between the carriageway and the sidewalk. 11
Parkland Dedication
Parkland dedication is a requirement imposed by a local governmental entity mandating that subdivision developers or builders dedicate land for a park and/or pay a fee to be used by the government entity to acquire and develop park facilities. An appealing feature of parkland dedication is that it responds to market conditions. 29
Participation
Participation is the involvement of people. 28
Partnerships
Sharing responsibility for delivering services by engaging other entities to invest some of their factors of production into the process. 7
Paths
A path is a defined area for walking or biking. Paths often have smoother textures than the adjacent ground, which helps define the region and suggests that movement through the setting would be unimpaired. 28
Personification
(1) a type of communication vehicle in which a story is told from the perspective of a non-human animal, plant or object, or through the eyes or experiences of a non-human narrator; (2) a type of presentation in which an interpreter portrays a non-human animal, plant or object. 6
PERT (Program Evaluation & Review Technique)
Project management programs give managers the ability to list and sequence activities; establish completion dates; and track costs, resources, and personnel. Some programs offer the Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) and/or Gantt charts, which are helpful in planning projects that require monitoring of sequential, dependent, or concurrent activities. 16
Picnic Areas
Picnic areas are spaces designed for picnicking (eating a meal outdoors). Picnic areas can be defined by hedges and signs and can contain picnic tables and trash cans. 28
Plant Community
A group of species that commonly occur together and grow in particular environmental conditions, such as the maple-beech forest or cottonwood-gallery forest. 3
Plat
A plat is a mapped plot of land that is used to designate the division and use of that area. 7
Play Streets
Play streets (see also Pop up Play) are streets and community places where youth can play and socialize. They are recurring on the same day, at the same time, for a set period of weeks. Activities are both structured and informal and are hosted by various community groups and partners.32
Population Density
A measure of density indicating the number of people within a given geographic area. 11
Positioning
The place that parks and recreation occupies in the minds of elected officials, nonprofit and business decision makers, and the general public relative to their perception of other services that are the field’s competitors for public tax dollars (and sometimes for foundations and other private source funding). 7
Privacy
Privacy is a feeling of being free from intrusion or disturbance and can be achieved by providing a sense of enclosure or a protective layer that offers visual separation from other areas. 28
Professional Meeting
A meeting among experts of a certain field. 25
Program Evaluation
Program evaluation is assessment at the micro-level (the individual program), looking to the past to provide a guide for the future. It is the systematic examination of specific agency activities to provide information on the full range of the program’s short and long-term effects on citizens. 21
Program Fees
Revenue sources for nonprofit organizations. Program fees/tuition are the charges assessed for participation in a specific program. For example, the Palo Alto (California) YMCA offers several family camping options. A father/child weekend camping program costs $98 per person. This YMCA also provides hiking trips for facility members at a no-cost basis and $10 for program members. 15
Program Life Cycle
The concept that programs are similar to life cycles of human biological development. There is a period of introduction, take-off, maturation, saturation, and then eventually either extension, decline, petrification, or death. 21
Program Management
The administration of a service including the program, facilities, personnel, and image. 21
Program Planning
Mapping out a program to be offered. A program plan includes the program title, the agency mission and programming philosophy, need for the program, design goals of the program, operation details (venue arrangements, special arrangements, inclusion plan, equipment, supply, and material needs, promotion plan, budget and pricing information, registration plan, staffing and staff orientation plan, animation plan, and program wrap-up), program evaluation, and disposition decision plan. 25
Program Promotion
Communication that seeks to inform, persuade, educate, or remind members of a potential client group of an agency’s programs and services. 21
Public Administration
Public administration is the management of programs for the public. Public administrators must take on the role of a decision maker, a problem solver, an advocate for positive change, and an authority delegator. 25
Public Hearings
A public hearing is a vehicle for communicating information between the public and park and recreation agencies. They can be uncomfortable for the exchange of information in both directions, but are important for including the public in the process. 28
Public Officials
Public officials are those that are in charge of the city. They have the responsibility to listen to citizens and accommodate their needs. 28
Public Participation
Public participation is the degree to which the public an agency serves are involved in decisions. Public participation is important because it impacts the way in which park and recreation agencies at all levels of government make decisions. 9
Publicity
Any unpaid form of non-personal communication where the agency is not identified as being the direct sponsor of the communication. Encouragement of the media to report on agency activities represents a typical form of publicity. 9
Quality of Services
Quality of services is a measure of how good an agency serves the customer. It can be measured in five ways: reliability (consistently high service quality), responsiveness (going the extra yard), empathy (understanding where the customer is coming from), assurance (conveys authority or expertise), and tangibles (cues of service quality the customer can see). 9
Rails to Trails Conservancy
The RTC secures multipurpose public paths that have been created from previous railroad passageways. The RTC promotes environmental stewardship, tourism, and heritage management. Its goal is to find public agencies to own and manage these trails for public use. 15
Rain Garden
A type of landscape design that is a small depression, with aesthetically-pleasing flowering plants, that collects water from a surrounding area, especially from lawns, paved surfaces, and roofs in an urban area. 3
Reimbursement Clause
A reimbursement clause enables a city to buy parkland before development by using funds such as general obligation bonds or certificates of obligation and to reimburse itself later, at least in part, from the fees-in-lieu. 29
Relocation
Relocation is the movement of people from one place of residence to another. 7
Repositioning
Repositioning the field by aligning community-wide benefits with the major issues of concern in a jurisdiction. 2
Residential Density
A measure of density indicating the number of residents within a given geographic area. 11
Restorative Environments
Restorative environments are natural spaces that reduce stress. They can be parks or trails. They resemble the environment in its natural state and when people are in them, they feel restored and relaxed. 28
Revenue Bonds
There are two major types of bonds issued by local governments: general obligation bond and revenue bonds. The basic difference between these bonds can be explained by the source of money used to retire them. If general property taxes provide the money to pay back the bond it is called a general obligation bond. If the monies to retire the bond are generated by the facility that is built by that bond money it is referred to as a revenue bond. 9
Risk management
Risk management has become a standard practice among park and recreation agencies to address the safety of visitors and employees. The development and implementation of a comprehensive risk management program can help both employees and recreation visitors in minimizing personal injuries, resulting in cost savings to the agency and to the individuals affected. 16
Segmentation
A method for splitting up different markets into groups that are sufficiently large, measurable, and accessible. 21
Self-guided tour
An interpretive tour in which people lead themselves through a series of pre-planned stops (usually keyed to a brochure, signs or audio messages). Self-guided tours may be taken by people on foot, bicycles, boats, trains, planes and other forms of transportation. 6
Sense of Place
Sense of place is the feeling that people attach to a specific geographic area. It can be created by distinct features, experiences in that place, and attachment to the place. Typically, a sense of place is achieved by a person’s perception of a certain place as being unique. 28
Service Delivery Methods – Direct Provider, Facilitator, Outreach
When agencies deliver services in the direct provider role, they are taking executive responsibility for the delivery of services. They typically are located in one place, requiring participants to travel to them. Participants’ only role is to experience the ready-made opportunities with little input, except the freedom to pick and choose which service to attend. In the facilitator role, the agency serves as a facilitator or enabler of leisure opportunities. This role usually assumes that park and recreation agencies recognize that they cannot alone provide for all of the needs of their community. It requires them to partner with other agencies. The outreach role is the effort that takes place when a social service agency reaches out and assists through personal contacts those citizens systematically excluded from, unaware of, or unreceptive to an agency’s service or those of related agencies. 9
Setback
The distance between a building’s facade and the street. Conventional zoning codes typically mandate large setbacks to accommodate parking in front of commercial structures. 11
Single-Use Development
Development wherein land use types (e.g., commercial, residential, industrial) are kept separate from one another. 11
Slopes
A gradual downward grade in a land or park area which is ideal for creating separation, buffers, prospect, wildlife or water retention, etc. 1
Special Districts
Special districts are those units of governance that exist separately from city or county governments. 25
Special Interest Groups
A special interest group is an organization with a specific focus that promotes advocacy, information, and support. They provide opportunities for individuals to participate in an organization with a specific focus. 15
Specialized Networks
Facilities that are not a part of either the street surface or the area immediately adjacent to the street and that are dedicated to non motorized travel and physical activity. Include specialized bicycle facilities. Shared facilities that accommodate multiple uses (trails for bicyclists, joggers, etc.), and pedestrian paths that link in-town destinations. 11
Sponsorship
A business relationship between between a provider of funds, resources, or services and a park and recreational program or organization that offers in return some rights and an association that may be used for commercial advantages. 7
Stakeholder
Group or individual who can affect, or is affected by, the achievement of the organization’s mission; examples include managers, employees, policy makers, suppliers, vendors, citizens, and community groups. 23
State Parks
Land that is owned by the state for the enjoyment of its residents. State parks are another way for land to be conserved without being the responsibility of the national government. State parks also bring outdoor recreation closer to the masses who are not able to visit National Parks. 15
Stewardship
Stewardship is the management of natural areas in an environmentally sensitive manner. 28
Strategic Plan
Sometimes referred to as a comprehensive plan or business plan. The purpose of the strategic plan is to establish a preferred course of action and to position the agency in the environment in which it operates. 23
Street Design
General term referencing design strategies that make streets more amenable for motorized or non-motorized transportation. 11
Street Furniture
Objects on the sidewalk such as benches, lampposts, trees, and mailboxes. 11
Street Trees
Trees planted immediately adjacent to the street surface (carriageway or parking lane). 11
Structural Constraints
Structural constraints intervene between leisure preferences and participation. These constraints include a variety of factors that are typically outside the control of the individual, including family life stages, financial resources, the scheduling of work activities, and availability of knowledge of opportunities. Structural constraints block or stymie involvement in preferred leisure activities. 22
Survey
Surveys refer to all types of self-administered questionnaires as well as phone, personal, e-mail, and group interviews. 30
Sustainable Landscape
A landscape enhanced and maintained to the highest degree of ecological harmony. 23
Systems Planning
The process of assessing the park, recreation, open space and greenway facility needs of a community and translating that information into a framework for meeting the physical, spatial and facility requirements to satisfy those needs. 23
Tactical Urbanism
Tactical Urbanism is an approach to neighborhood building and activation using short-term, low-cost, and scalable interventions and policies.31
Target Marketing
An agency identifies exactly which wants, and which sections of the community possessing those wants, it is going to serve. 21
Targeting a Market
Targeting a market is choosing a specific segment of the population to market your products or services towards. 7
Tax Base
The aggregate value of the assessed property within a particular jurisdiction. 7
Themes
A theme is a unifying or dominate idea present throughout an area. 28
Topography
The relief features or surface configuration of an area. 28
Tracking
Tracking is a simple observation technique in which the observer follows visitors into and through a place, to learn more about how the place is used and about circulation into and through it. 12
Traffic Calming
Term for strategies that attempt to slow motorized traffic and enhance non-motorized travel through street redesign. Strategies include placing humps, plantings, and other objects in the carriage, narrowing the width of the street at key points such as pedestrian crossings, and other similar measures. 11
Transportation Systems
Transportation systems connect places to each other. They influence how easy or difficult it is to use different types of transportation to get from one place to another. Different transportation systems include streets and roads, transit systems, and specialized networks. 11
TRAPS
Texas Recreation and Park Society (TRAPS) is a non-profit 501(c)3 professional and educational organization founded 70 years ago. TRAPS is committed to advancing the field of parks, recreation and leisure services in Texas, while advocating for enhanced recreation opportunities and the increase of public green space for Texans. TRAPS, serves as a clearinghouse of information on parks and recreation, fosters networking and promotes the sharing of information. 15
Tree-Planting Projects
A project that involves the community in the planting of trees in an area. 28
Trip-end Density
A measure of density indicating the number of trip ends (basically, the origin or destination of a trip) within a given geographic area. 11
Trust for Public Land (TPL)
Formed in 1973 to acquire and preserve urban open space for urban dwellers. TPL acts as a middleman, aggressively initiating negotiations, seeking bargain sales, and offering expertise in tax problems. 9
Turf
A layer of matted earth formed by grass and plant roots. 15
Universal Concept
An intangible meaning tied to a natural or cultural resource to which almost everyone can relate; used in interpretive programs and media to help visitors make a personal connection with the resource. 29
Urban
An urban area is a built-up area characterized by relatively high-population densities and a concentration of industries. Often opposed to rural. Sometimes indicates the core of the metropolitan region, in opposition to suburban areas. 3
Urban Forest(ry)
The vegetation of a metropolitan area. Urban forestry includes street trees, trees on residential property, and park and greenway trees. It involves three primary functions; (1) planting, (2) maintenance, and (3) removal. Many municipal park and recreation departments are responsible for trees and shrubbery on city rights-of-way, as well as greenways and park and recreation property 0
Urban From
A general term referring to the spatial arrangement and layout of objects and networks within cities, towns, and suburbs. 11
Urban Growth Management
A package of public strategies, policies, codes and ordinances which are designed to keep pace of urban growth in line with the fiscal capability of a jurisdiction to finance the required infrastructure, plan to protect natural resources and the environment, and maintain the desired quality of life in the community. 23
Urban Rejuvenation
Parks and recreation developments such as parks, aquariums, marinas, entertainment centers, cultural centers, convention centers, gaming venues, sports complexes, and urban weekend retreats that have been used to transform rundown central downtown areas into exciting, vibrant, livable places. 7
Vandalism
Vandalism is the destruction or defacement of property. Observing vandalism in an area leads to visitors being cautious of their surroundings. 28
Variable Cost Pricing
The established price is equal to the average variable cost of providing the service. The variable cost price is calculated by dividing the total number of variable costs by the number of participants. 9
Visitor Centers
A visitors center is a place where a visitor can obtain information about an area. 28
Volunteer
Nonprofit organizations often rely heavily on the use of volunteers to carry out the work of the organization. There are three types of volunteers; Those who serve as members of a board of directors, those who assist in providing direct face-to-face leadership or general supervision to programs, those who assist with administrative or support function. 15
Volunteerism
Volunteerism has traditionally have been a major sources of additional fund for public recreation and parks in the United States, as many individuals and companies give their talent and time through volunteering. 9
Vouchers
Vouchers give resources to citizens so that they can purchase the services from their choice of authorized suppliers. They are given to citizens by a public agency. The citizens then exchange their vouchers for services that their preferred supplier delivers. The provider of the services then returns them to the agency and receives cash for the vouchers acquired. 7
Walkable Environment
Neighborhoods or districts that encourage walking by containing multiple attributes: wide sidewalks, provision of “street furniture,” short building setbacks, well-marked and frequent crosswalks, traffic calming, high residential and commercial densities, mixed uses, and public amenities such as squares, parks, and other gathering places. 11
Watershed
A region that is defined by topographic high points and where water drains into a single outlet, such as a river system draining to a delta. 3
Way-finding
Way-finding is the process by which people are able to move through a setting without feeling lost or confused as to their whereabouts. 28
Wetlands
A land that has a wet or spongy soil, as a marsh, swamp, or bog. 19
Wheelchair Access
Wheelchair access is providing a way for a person in a wheelchair to enter and move through a setting. Ramps and handrails are examples of ways to encourage wheelchair access 28
Wilderness
In the early modern period (around the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries) “spaces beyond human control,” in the wild forests and mountains. Now wilderness means wild and uncultivated land. 3
Work orders (logs, records, forms)
To keep track of work backlog, the work control clerk should keep a work order log. Such a record is simple to maintain and can reveal unusual delays, identify unproductive crews, and show the dollar value of work done during any time period. The supervisor’s work order log should include the work order number, date assigned, estimated completion date, and projected costs. 16
Workability
Every design solution must posses workability; that is every tangible object and relationship system proposed, must function in the most efficient manner possible. 1
Zoning
Zoning defines what activities may take place in certain areas and can be used to create and protect a wide range of public amenities. 7
About the Urban and Municipal Parks Dictionary
The dictionary was compiled by our undergraduate and graduate student workers. Submissions were compiled from RPTS faculty working in the areas of urban and municipal parks. Additional terms were compiled from commonly used textbooks in the field of study.
If you would like a word and definition added to the Urban and Municipal parks dictionary, please send your request to urbanparks@ag.tamu.edu.
References
1. Albert J. Rutledge, 1971
2. John L. Crompton, 2007
3. Forsyth & Musacchio, 2005
4. Greenberg & Schneider, 1995
5. National Association for Interpretation
6. Sam H. Ham, 1992
7. John L. Crompton, 1999
8. John L. Crompton, 2000
9. Howard & Crompton, 1980
10. Jenkins & Pigram, 2003
11. Frank, Engelke & Schmid, 2003
12. PPS: How to Turn a Place Around, 2000
14. Kaplan & Kaplan, 1982
15. Edginton, DeGraaf, Dieser & Edginton, 2006
16. Warren, Rea & Payne, 2007
17. US Legal, Inc., 2001-2008
18. Warren, Rea & Payne, 2007
19. Dictionary.com Unabridged, 2009
20. The Drip Store, 2006
21. Crompton & Lamb, 1986
22. Jenkins and Pigram
23. Mertes & Hall, 1995
24. Shafer, Scott, & Mixon, 2000
25. Joseph J. Bannon, 1972
26. Robert Rossman and Barbara Elwood Schlatter, 2000
27. Joseph J. Bannon, 1972
28. Kaplan, Kaplan & Ryan, 1998
29. Susan Scott, 2010
30. Henderson and Bialeschki, 2002
31. Lyndon & Duany, 2015
32. Transportation Alternatives Case Study
33. Kaboom
